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Cosmetics are composed of mixtures of chemical compounds derived from either natural sources or synthetically created ones.^[1] Cosmetics have various purposes, including personal and skin care. They can also be used to conceal blemishes and enhance natural features (such as the eyebrows and eyelashes). Makeup can also add colour to a person’s face, enhance a person’s features or change the appearance of the face entirely to resemble a different person, creature, or object.^[2]

People have used cosmetics for thousands of years for skin care and appearance enhancement. Visible cosmetics for women and men have gone in and out of fashion over the centuries.

Some early forms of cosmetics used harmful ingredients such as lead that caused serious health problems and sometimes resulted in death. Modern commercial cosmetics are generally tested for safety but may contain controversial ingredients, such as per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS), formaldehyde releasers, and ingredients that cause allergic reactions.

The European Union and regulatory agencies around the world have stringent regulations for cosmetics. In the United States, cosmetic products and ingredients do not require FDA approval. Some countries have banned using animals for cosmetic testing.

Definition and etymology

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The word cosmetics is derived from the Greek κοσμητικὴ τέχνη (kosmetikē tekhnē), meaning “technique of dress and ornament,” from κοσμητικός (kosmētikos), “skilled in ordering or arranging,”^[3] and from κόσμος (kosmos), meaning “order” and “ornament.”.^[4]

Legal definition

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The examples and perspective in this section may not represent a worldwide view of the subject. You may improve this section, discuss the issue on the talk page, or create a new section, as appropriate. (August 2021) (Learn how and when to remove this message)

Though the legal definition of cosmetics in most countries is broader, in some Western countries,^[which?] cosmetics are commonly taken to mean only makeup products, such as lipstick, mascara, eye shadow, foundation, blush, highlighter, bronzer, fake eyelashes, eyeliner, concealer, lip gloss, and several other product types.^{[clarification needed]}

In the United States, the Food and Drug Administration (FDA), which regulates cosmetics,^[5] defines cosmetics as products “intended to be applied to the human body for cleansing, beautifying, promoting attractiveness, or altering the appearance without affecting the body’s structure or functions.” This broad definition includes any material intended for use as an ingredient in a cosmetic product, with the FDA specifically excluding pure soap from this category.^[6]

Use

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Cosmetics designed for skin care may be used to cleanse, exfoliate and protect the skin, as well as replenish it, using body lotions, cleansers, toners, serums, moisturizers, eye creams, retinol, and balms. Cosmetics designed for more general personal care, such as shampoo, soap, and body wash, can be used to clean the body.

Cosmetics designed to enhance one’s appearance (makeup) can be used to conceal blemishes, enhance one’s natural features, or add color to a person’s face. In some cases, more extreme forms of makeup are used for performances, fashion shows, and people in costume and can change the appearance of the face entirely to resemble a different person, creature, or object. Techniques for changing appearance include contouring, which aims to give shape to an area of the face.

Cosmetics can also be designed to add fragrance to the body.

Products used for haircare, such as permanent waves, hair colors, and hairsprays, are classified as cosmetic products as well.^[7]

History

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Main article: History of cosmetics

Cosmetics have been in use for thousands of years, with ancient Egyptians and Sumerians using them. In Europe, the use of cosmetics continued into the Middle Ages—where the face was whitened and the cheeks rouged—^[8] though attitudes towards cosmetics varied throughout time, with the use of cosmetics being openly frowned upon at many points in Western history.^[9] Regardless of the changes in social attitudes towards cosmetics, many occasionally achieved ideals of appearance through cosmetics.

According to one source, early major developments in cosmetics include:^[1]

• Kohl used by ancient Egyptians
• Castor oil also used in ancient Egypt as a protective balm
• Skin creams made of beeswax, olive oil, and rose water, described by the Romans
• Vaseline and lanolin in the nineteenth century.

Historically, the absence of regulation of the manufacture and use of cosmetics, as well as the absence of scientific knowledge regarding the effects of various compounds on the human body for much of this time period, led to a number of negative effects upon those who used cosmetics, including deformities, blindness, and, in some cases, death. Although harmless products were used, such as berries, and beetroot, many cosmetic products available at this time were still chemically dubious and even poisonous. Examples of the prevalent usage of harmful cosmetics include the use of ceruse (white lead) throughout a number of different cultures, such as during the Renaissance in the West, and blindness caused by the mascara Lash Lure during the early 20th century. During the 19th century, there were numerous incidents of lead poisoning due to the fashion for red and white lead makeup and powder, leading to swelling and inflammation of the eyes, weakened tooth enamel, and blackened skin, with heavy use known to lead to death.^[10] Usage of white lead was not confined only to the West, with the white Japanese face makeup known as oshiroi also produced using white lead. In the second part of the 19th century, scientific advances in the production of makeup lead to the creation of makeup free of hazardous substances such as lead.^{[citation needed]}

Throughout the late 19th and early 20th centuries, changes in the prevailing attitudes towards cosmetics led to a wider expansion of the cosmetics industry. In 1882, English actress and socialite Lillie Langtry became the poster girl for Pears of London, making her the first celebrity to endorse a commercial product.^[11] She allowed her name to be used on face powders and skin products.^[12] During the 1910s, the market in the US was developed by figures such as Elizabeth Arden, Helena Rubinstein, and Max Factor. These firms were joined by Revlon just before World War II and Estée Lauder just after. By the middle of the 20th century, cosmetics were in widespread use by women in nearly all industrial societies around the world, with the cosmetics industry becoming a multibillion-dollar enterprise by the beginning of the 21st century.^[13] The wider acceptance of the use of cosmetics led some to see makeup as a tool used in the oppression and subjection of women to unfair societal standards. In 1968, at the feminist Miss America protest, protesters symbolically threw a number of feminine products into a “Freedom Trash Can”,^[14] with cosmetics among the items the protesters called “instruments of female torture”^[15] and accoutrements of what they perceived to be enforced femininity.

As of 2016, the world’s largest cosmetics company is L’Oréal, founded by Eugène Schueller in 1909 as the French Harmless Hair Colouring Company (now owned by Liliane Bettencourt 26% and Nestlé 28%; the remaining 46% is traded publicly).

Although modern makeup has been traditionally used mainly by women, men also use makeup to enhance their own facial features or cover blemishes and dark circles. The negative stigma of men wearing makeup in countries such as the United States has weakened over the years, with the number of men using makeup increasing in the 21st century.^[16] Cosmetics brands have increasingly targeted men in the sale of cosmetics, with some products targeted specifically at men.^[17][18]

Lead has been used as a makeup product since the 18th century. It is said to be lethal to women who apply it daily to achieve a pale complexion representing nobility, as tanner skin represents the working class. Lead can be detrimental to people’s health and cause death if mixed with vinegar which it allows lead to be absorbed through the skin.^[19]

Types of cosmetics

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Though there are a large number of different cosmetics used for a variety of different purposes, all cosmetics are typically intended to be applied externally. These products can be applied to the face (on the skin, lips, eyebrows, and eyes), to the body (on the skin, particularly the hands and nails), and to the hair. These products may be intended for use as skincare, personal care, or to alter the appearance, with the subset of cosmetics known as makeup primarily referring to products containing colour pigments intended for the purpose of altering the wearer’s appearance; some manufacturers will distinguish only between “decorative” cosmetics intended to alter the appearance and “care” cosmetics designed for skincare and personal care.

Most cosmetics are also distinguished by the area of the body intended for application, with cosmetics designed to be used on the face and eye area usually applied with a brush, a makeup sponge, or the fingertips. Cosmetics can also be described by the physical composition of the product. Cosmetics can be liquid or cream emulsions, powders (pressed or loose), dispersions, or anhydrous creams or sticks.

Decorative

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• Primers are used on the face before makeup is applied, creating a typically transparent, smooth layer over the top of the skin, allowing for makeup to be applied smoothly and evenly. Some primers may also be tinted, and this tint may match the wearer’s skin tone or may colour correct it, using greens, oranges, and purples to even out the wearer’s skin tone and correct redness, purple shadows, or orange discolouration respectively.
• Concealer is a cream or liquid product used to conceal marks or blemishes on the skin. Concealer is typically the colour of the user’s skin tone and is generally applied after the face has been primed to even out the wearer’s skin tone before foundation can be applied. Concealer is usually more heavily pigmented, has higher coverage, and is thicker than foundation or tinted primers. Though concealer is often more heavy duty in terms of pigment and consistency than foundation, a number of different formulations intended for different styles of use, such as a lighter concealer for the eyes and a heavier concealer for stage makeup, are available, as well as color-correcting concealers intended to balance out discolouration of the skin specifically.
• Foundation is a cream, liquid, mousse, or powder product applied to the entirety of the face to create a smooth and even base for the user’s skin tone. Foundation provides a generally lower amount of coverage than concealer and is sold in formulations that can provide sheer, matte, dewy or full coverage to the skin.^[5]
• Rouge, blush, or blusher is a liquid, cream, or powder product applied to the centre of the cheeks with the intention of adding or enhancing their natural colour. Blushers are typically available in shades of pink and red or warm tan and brown, and may also be used to make the cheekbones appear more defined.^[5]
• Bronzer is a powder, cream, or liquid product that adds colour to the skin, typically in bronze or tan shades, intended to give the skin a tanned appearance and enhance the colour of the face. Bronzer, like highlighter, may also contain substances providing a shimmer or glitter effect,^[5] and comes in either matte, semi-matte, satin, or shimmer finishes. Unlike bronzer, the purpose of contour is to help emphasize your facial features by adding depth.^[20]
• Highlighter is a liquid, cream, or powder product applied to the high points of the face, such as the eyebrows, nose, and cheekbones. Highlighter commonly has substances added, providing a shimmer or glitter effect. Alternatively, a lighter toned foundation or concealer can be used as a highlighter.
• Eyebrow pencils, creams, waxes, gels, and powders are used to color, fill in, and define the brows.^[5][21][22] Eyebrow tinting treatments are also used to dye the eyebrow hairs a darker colour, either temporarily or permanently, without staining and colouring the skin underneath the eyebrows.
• Eyeshadow is a powder, cream, or liquid pigmented product used to draw attention to, accentuate, and change the shape of the area around the eyes, the eyelids, and the space below the eyebrows. Eyeshadow is typically applied using an eyeshadow brush with generally small and rounded bristles, though liquid and cream formulations may also be applied with the fingers. Eyeshadow is available in almost every colour, as well as being sold in a number of different finishes, ranging from matte finishes with sheer coverage to glossy, shimmery, and highly pigmented finishes. Many different colours and finishes of eyeshadow may be combined in one look and blended together to achieve different effects.
• Eyeliner is used to enhance and elongate the apparent size or depth of the eye. Though eyeliner is commonly black, it can come in many different colours. Eyeliner can come in the form of a pencil, a gel or a liquid.
• False eyelashes are used to extend, exaggerate, and add volume to the eyelashes. Consisting generally of a small strip to which hair—either human, mink, or synthetic—is attached, false eyelashes are typically applied to the lash line using glue, which can come in latex and latex-free varieties; magnetic false eyelashes, which attach to the eyelid after magnetic eyeliner is applied, are also available. Designs vary in length and colour, with rhinestones, gems, feathers, and lace available as false eyelash designs. False eyelashes are not permanent and can be easily taken off with the fingers. Eyelash extensions are a more permanent way to achieve this look. Each set lasts for two to three weeks, then the set can be filled, similar to the maintenance of acrylic nails. To apply for extensions, the certified lash artist would start by taping down the bottom eyelashes. The lash artist would then use two tweezers, one to isolate the natural eyelash and one to apply the false eyelash. An individual false eyelash, or lash fan, is applied to one natural eyelash using a lash glue specific for this process. The eyelashes should not be stuck together. The length and thickness of the false lash should not be to heavy for the natural eyelash. If this process is done correctly, no harm will be done to the natural eyelashes.^[23]
• Mascara is used to darken, lengthen, thicken, or enhance the eyelashes through the use of a typically thick, cream-like product applied with a spiral bristle mascara brush. Mascara is commonly black, brown, or clear, though a number of different colours, some containing glitter, are available. Mascara is typically advertised and sold in a number of different formulations that advertise qualities such as waterproofing, volume enhancement, length enhancement, and curl enhancement, and may be used in combination with an eyelash curler to enhance the natural curl of the eyelashes.^[5]
• Lip products, including lipstick, lip gloss, lip liner and lip balms, commonly add color and texture to the lips, as well as serving to moisturise the lips and define their external edges.^[5] Products adding colour and texture to the lips, such as lipsticks and lip glosses, often come in a wide range of colors as well as a number of different finishes, such as matte finishes and satin or glossy finishes. Other styles of lip coloration products, such as lip stains, temporarily saturate the lips with a dye and typically do not alter the texture of the lips. Both lip colour products and lip liners may be waterproof and may be applied directly to the lips, with a brush, or with the fingers. Lip balms, though designed to moisturise and protect the lips (such as through the addition of UV protection) may also tint the lips.
• Face powder, setting powder, or setting sprays are used to ‘set’ foundation or concealer, giving it a matte or consistent finish while also concealing small flaws or blemishes. Both powders and setting sprays claim to keep makeup from absorbing into the skin or melting off. While setting sprays are generally not tinted, setting powder and face powder can come in translucent or tinted varieties, and can be used to bake foundation in order for it to stay longer on the face. Tinted face powders may also be worn alone without foundation or concealer to give an extremely sheer coverage base.
• Nail polish is a liquid used to colour the fingernails and toenails.^[5] Transparent, colorless nail polishes may be used to strengthen nails or be used as a top or base coat to protect the nail or nail polish. Nail polish, like eyeshadow, is available in every colour and a number of different finishes, including matte, shimmer, glossy and crackle finishes.

Skincare

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Cleansing is a standard step in skin care routines. Skin cleansing includes some or all of these steps or cosmetics:

• Cleansers or foaming washes are used to remove excess dirt, oil, and makeup left on the skin.^[24] Different cleansing products are aimed at various types of skin, such as sulfate-free cleansers and spin brushes.^[24]
  • Cleansing oil, or oil cleanser, is an oil-based solution that gently emulsifies the skin’s natural oils and removes makeup. Cleansing oils are typically used as part of a two-step cleansing process. After the skin has been cleansed with an oil cleanser, a second cleanse is done using a mild gel, milk or cream cleanser to ensure any traces of the oil cleanser and makeup are removed.
• Toners are used after cleansing to remove any remaining traces of cleanser and restore the pH of the skin. They may also add some hydration. They are usually applied to a cotton pad and wiped over the skin, but they can be sprayed onto the skin from a spray bottle or poured onto the hand and patted directly onto the skin. Toners usually contain water, citric acid, herbal extracts, and other ingredients. Witch hazel is still commonly used in toners to tighten the pores and refresh the skin. Alcohol is used less often as it is drying and can be irritating to the skin. It may still be found in toners, specially for those with oily skin. Some toners contain active ingredients and target particular skin types, such as tea tree oil, salicylic acid, or glycolic acid.
• Hyperpigmentation treatment: Kojic acid soap, cream, or powder, and Arbutin (a b-D-glucopyranoside derivative of hydroquinone) serum or cream help get rid of hyperpigmentation spots of the skin.^[25]
• Facial masks are treatments applied to the skin and then removed. Typically, they are applied to a dry, cleansed face, avoiding the eyes and lips.
  • Clay-based masks use kaolin clay or fuller’s earth to transport essential oils and chemicals to the skin and are typically left on until completely dry. As the clay dries, it absorbs excess oil and dirt from the surface of the skin and may help to clear blocked pores or draw comedones to the surface. Because of their drying actions, clay-based masks should only be used on oily skins.
  • Peel masks are typically gel-like in consistency and contain acids or exfoliating agents to help exfoliate the skin, along with other ingredients to hydrate, discourage wrinkles, or treat uneven skin tone. They are left on to dry and then gently peeled off. They should be avoided by people with dry or sensitive skin, as they tend to be very drying.
  • Sheet masks are a relatively new product that is becoming extremely popular in Asia. Sheet masks consist of a thin cotton or fiber sheet with holes cut out for the eyes and lips and cut to fit the contours of the face, onto which serums and skin treatments are brushed in a thin layer; the sheets may be soaked in the treatment. Masks are available to suit almost all skin types and skin complaints. Sheet masks are quicker, less messy, and require no specialized knowledge or equipment for their use compared to other types of face masks, but they may be difficult to find and purchase outside Asia.
  • Exfoliants are products that help slough off dead skin cells from the topmost layer of the skin to improve the appearance of the skin. This is achieved either by using mild acids or other chemicals to loosen old skin cells or lightly abrasive substances to physically remove them. Exfoliation can also help even out patches of rough skin, improve cell turnover, clear blocked pores to discourage acne, and improve the appearance and healing of scars.
  • Chemical exfoliants include azelaic acid, citric acid, acetic acid, malic acid, mandelic acid, glycolic acid, lactic acid, salicylic acid, papain, and bromelain. They may be found in cleansers, scrubs, and peels, but also in leave-on products such as toners, serums, and moisturisers. Chemical exfoliants mainly fall into the categories of AHAs, BHAs, PHAs or enzymes.
  • Abrasive exfoliants include gels, creams or lotions, as well as physical objects.
• Moisturizers are creams or lotions that hydrate the skin and help it to retain moisture. Typical components are polyols such as glycerol and sorbitol as well as partially hydrolyzed proteins.^[1] Tinted moisturizers contain a small amount of foundation, which can provide light coverage for minor blemishes or to even out skin tones. They are usually applied with the fingertips or a cotton pad.
• Eyes require a different kind of moisturizer compared with the rest of the face. The skin around the eyes is extremely thin and sensitive, and it is often the first area to show signs of aging. Eye creams are typically very light lotions or gels, and are usually very gentle; some may contain ingredients such as caffeine or Vitamin K to reduce puffiness and dark circles under the eyes. Eye creams or gels should be applied over the entire eye area with a finger, using a patting motion. Finding a moisturizer with SPF is beneficial to prevent aging and wrinkles.
• Sunscreens are creams, lotions, sprays, gels, sticks, or other topical projects that protect the skin from the sun. They contain organic or inorganic filters that act to absorb or reflect harmful UV radiation.^[26] Sunscreens are marked with ‘spf’, which means ‘sun protection factor.’ This shows that a product provides protection against UVB.^[26] UVA ratings on sunscreens can be denoted by the number of stars or plus symbols varying among countries.^[27] UVA ratings do not specifically depict the amount of UVA protection a sunscreen is providing but rather the ratio of equal UVA and UVB protection.^[27] The recommended ‘gold standard’ of a sunscreen should be at least SPF 30 and at least 4 stars or plus symbols.^[27] Daily sunscreen application is very important, but uses of shade, clothing, and hats are as important and more effective for sun protection.
• Serums are light, easily absorbed liquids that one spreads on their skin. The main purpose of the product is to be applied before moisturizer, and the serum provides a high concentration of any specific ingredient on the face. The benefits of serum are skin firmness, smoothness of the face, and reducing the fine lines and wrinkles on ones face.

Hair care

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Hair care is a category of cosmetics devoted to products which are used to improve the appearance of hair.^[28]

• Shampoos are used to clean the hair and scalp by massaging into wet hair and then rinsing.^[29]
• Hair conditioners are used following shampoo to improve the appearance of hair by making it smoother and shinier.
• Styling products include gels, waxes, foams, creams, mousse, serum and pomades; they are used to create and maintain hairstyles.

Perfume

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Perfumes or fragrances, are liquids that can be sprayed or applied to produce a long-lasting smell.^[30] They are created by mixing different compounds together. There are different groups of perfumes which are categorised according to their concentration.^[30]

• Parfum
• Eau de parfum
• Eau de toilette

The difference between Eau de parfum and Eau de toilette is more about the perfume oil concentration. Eau de parfum has a higher concentration of perfume than Eau de toilette.

Tools

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Various tools are used to apply cosmetics.

Brushes

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• A makeup brush is used to apply makeup to the face. There are two types of makeup brushes: synthetic and natural. Synthetic brushes are best for cream products while natural brushes are ideal for powder products.^[31] Using the appropriate brush to apply a certain product allows the product to blend into the skin smoothly and evenly.
• A foundation brush is usually a dense brush that distributes the product evenly while smoothing out the face. This brush is best used to achieve full coverage.
• A concealer brush has a small, tapered tip that allows for precise spot correction such as blemishes or discoloration.
• A stippling brush has soft, synthetic bristles that give an airbrushed effect. This brush is best used to achieve light to medium coverage.
• A blush brush comes in all shapes and sizes and is used to apply blush, allowing the blush to look natural while giving a flush of color.
• A powder brush tends to be big and fluffy for quick and easy application of dusting powder all over the face. Powder gives the appearance of a matte effect.
• A bronzer brush, which can also serve as a contour brush, is an angled brush that gives the face dimensions and illusions by allowing the makeup to be placed in place of bone structure. This brush can also be used to add a shimmering highlight illusion to the cheekbones, nose and chin.
• A highlight brush, also known as a fan brush, has bristles that are typically spread out and is used to apply where the sun would naturally hit.
• An eyeshadow brush is a dense brush that allows shadow to be packed onto the eyelid.
• A blending eyeshadow brush is used to blend out any harsh lines you may have from the eyeshadow and can soften the eyeshadow look.
• An eyeliner brush is tapered with an extra-fine tip used for gel eyeliners which allows precision to line the eyes.
• A spoolie is used to brush out the eyebrows and can also be used as a mascara wand.
• A lip brush is small to ensure precision and is used to apply lipstick evenly onto the lips.
• An eyebrow brush is tapered and slanting from the top, which tends to define the eyebrows and fill in the empty spaces between brows, to give them a fuller and denser look.
• A Kabuki brush is used to apply any sort of powder makeup to large surfaces of the face (loose powder, foundation, face powder, blush, bronzer). This brush is used to evenly the skin.

Other applicators

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In addition to brushes, a makeup sponge is a popular applicator. Makeup sponges can be used to apply foundation, blend concealer, and apply powder or highlighter.

Loofahs, microfiber cloths, natural sponges, or brushes may be used to exfoliate skin simply by rubbing them over the face in a circular motion. Gels, creams, or lotions may contain an acid to encourage dead skin cells to loosen, and an abrasive such as microbeads, sea salt and sugar, ground nut shells, rice bran, or ground apricot kernels to scrub the dead cells off the skin. Salt and sugar scrubs tend to be the harshest, while scrubs containing beads or rice bran are typically very gentle.

Ingredients

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Main article: Ingredients of cosmetics

A variety of organic compounds and inorganic compounds comprise typical cosmetics. Typical organic compounds are modified natural oils and fats as well as a variety of petrochemically derived agents. Inorganic compounds are processed minerals such as iron oxides, talc, and zinc oxide. The oxides of zinc and iron are classified as pigments, i.e., colorants that have no solubility in solvents. Cosmetic companies have become more transparent in the ingredients of their products because consumers are interested in the formula of their products.^[32]

Natural

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See also: Organic movement and Maker culture

Handmade and certified organic products are becoming more mainstream due to consumer concerns that certain chemicals in some skincare products may be harmful if absorbed through the skin. The FDA, which regulates the US cosmetic industry, says “FDA has not defined the term “natural” and has not established a regulatory definition for this term in cosmetic labeling.”^[33] It goes on to warn consumers, “choosing ingredients from sources you consider “organic” or “natural” is no guarantee that they are safe.”

Mineral

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The term “mineral makeup” applies to a category of face makeup, including foundation, eye shadow, blush, and bronzer, made with loose, dry mineral powders. These powders are often mixed with oil-water emulsions. Lipsticks, liquid foundations, and other liquid cosmetics, as well as compressed makeups such as eye shadow and blush in compacts, are often called mineral makeup if they have the same primary ingredients as dry mineral makeups. Liquid makeups must contain preservatives, and compressed makeups must contain binders, which dry mineral makeups do not. Mineral makeup usually does not contain synthetic fragrances, preservatives, parabens, mineral oil, or chemical dyes. For this reason, dermatologists may consider mineral makeup to be gentler on the skin than makeup that contains those ingredients.^[34] Some minerals are nacreous or pearlescent, giving the skin a shining or sparking appearance. One example is bismuth oxychloride.^[1] There are various mineral-based makeup brands, including: Bare Minerals, Tarte, Bobbi Brown, and Stila.

Packaging

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Main article: Cosmetic packaging

The term cosmetic packaging is used for primary packaging and secondary packaging of cosmetic products.^{[citation needed]}

Primary packaging, also called cosmetic containers, houses the cosmetic product. It is in direct contact with the cosmetic product. Secondary packaging is the outer wrapping of one or several cosmetic container(s). An important difference between primary and secondary packaging is that any information that is necessary to clarify the safety of the product must appear on the primary package. Otherwise, much of the required information can appear on just the secondary packaging.^[35]

Cosmetic packaging is standardized by ISO 22715, set by the International Organization for Standardization^[36] and regulated by national or regional regulations such as those issued by the EU or the FDA. Marketers and manufacturers of cosmetic products must be compliant to these regulations to be able to market their cosmetic products in the corresponding areas of jurisdiction.^[37]

Industry

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The manufacture of cosmetics is dominated by a small number of multinational corporations that originated in the early 20th century, but the distribution and sales of cosmetics are spread among a wide range of businesses. The world’s largest cosmetic companies are L’Oréal, Procter & Gamble, Unilever, Shiseido, and Estée Lauder.^[38] In 2005, the market volume of the cosmetics industry in the US, Europe, and Japan was about EUR 70 Billion/a year.^[1] In Germany, the cosmetic industry generated €12.6 billion of retail sales in 2008,^[39] which makes the German cosmetic industry the third largest in the world, after Japan and the United States. German exports of cosmetics reached €5.8 billion in 2008, whereas imports of cosmetics totaled €3 billion.^[39]

The worldwide cosmetics and perfume industry currently generates an estimated annual turnover of US$170 billion (according to Eurostaf, May 2007). Europe is the leading market, representing approximately €63 billion, while sales in France reached €6.5 billion in 2006, according to FIPAR (Fédération des Industries de la Parfumerie – the French federation for the perfume industry).^{[40][unreliable source?]} France is another country in which the cosmetic industry plays an important role, both nationally and internationally. According to data from 2008, the cosmetic industry has grown constantly in France for 40 consecutive years. In 2006, this industrial sector reached a record level of €6.5 billion. Famous cosmetic brands produced in France include Vichy, Yves Saint Laurent, Yves Rocher, and many others.

The Italian cosmetic industry is also an important player in the European cosmetic market. Although not as large as in other European countries, the cosmetic industry in Italy was estimated to reach €9 billion in 2007.^{[citation needed]} The Italian cosmetic industry is dominated by hair and body products and not makeup as in many other European countries. In Italy, hair and body products make up approximately 30% of the cosmetic market. Makeup and facial care are the most common cosmetic products exported to the United States.

According to Euromonitor International, the market for cosmetics in China is expected to be $7.4 billion in 2021 up from $4.3 billion in 2016. The increase is due to social media and the changing attitudes of people in the 18-to-30-year age bracket.^[41]

Due to the popularity of cosmetics, especially fragrances, many designers who are not necessarily involved in the cosmetic industry came up with perfumes bearing their names. Moreover, some actors and singers (such as Celine Dion) have their own perfume line. Designer perfumes are, like any other designer products, the most expensive in the industry as the consumer pays for the product and the brand. Famous Italian fragrances are produced by Giorgio Armani, Dolce & Gabbana, and others.

Procter & Gamble, which sells CoverGirl and Dolce & Gabbana makeup, funded a study^[42] concluding that makeup makes women seem more competent.^[43] Due to the source of funding, the quality of this Boston University study is questioned.

Cosmetics products may be retailed in beauty stores, department stores and hypermarkets, drugstores, variety stores, grocery stores, beauty supply stores, and many other formats, and in similar types of online stores or the online presence of these types of physical stores.

Cosmetic companies have changed their traditional methods of marketing by using social media influencers and brand ambassadors to market their products.^[32]

Controversy

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Further information: Environmental impact of pharmaceuticals and personal care products

During the 20th century, the popularity of cosmetics increased rapidly.^[44] Cosmetics are used by girls at increasingly young ages, especially in the United States. Because of the fast-decreasing age of makeup users, many companies, from drugstore brands like Rimmel to higher-end products like Estee Lauder, cater to this expanding market by introducing flavored lipsticks and glosses, cosmetics packaged in glittery and sparkly packaging, and marketing and advertising using young models.^[45] The social consequences of younger and younger cosmetics use have had much attention in the media over the last few years.

Criticism of cosmetics has come from a wide variety of sources including some feminists,^[46] religious groups, animal rights activists, authors, and public interest groups. It has also faced criticism from men, some of whom describe it as a form of deception or fakeup.^[47]

The new generation has been more accepting of males wearing makeup, and having a “soft pretty boy” look in South Korea has become more widespread in recent years, particularly among younger generations. This trend is known as “K-beauty,” and it has been popularized by K-pop idols, actors, and social media influencers. Many of these idols have become beauty icons and have allowed many men to access beauty products and to feel comfortable using them. While there may still be some societal pressure to conform to traditional gender norms, there is also a growing acceptance of individual expression and breaking free from traditional gender roles.^[48][49]

The Sephora Kids are the generation alpha (the cohort born roughly between 2010 and 2025) and is growing up in a very different environment compared to previous generations, and several factors contribute to their heightened interest in skincare and makeup.^[50] Platforms like TikTok have also popularized short, fun videos about skincare and makeup tips, making beauty routines seem exciting and achievable. Social media platforms have made it easier for celebrities and influencers to become role models for Gen Alpha, and as a result, many celebrities and influencers actively promote skincare routines or collaborate with beauty brands, making skincare and makeup more aspirational Alpha is also inspired by the “clean beauty” movement and inclusive beauty brands that champion self-expression, allowing them to feel more confident in exploring skincare and makeup.^[51]

In 2023 and 2024, many people posting on social media have reported seeing girls, ranging from 10 to 12 in age in popular cosmetic stores, such as the likes of Boots and Sephora.^[50] This is most commonly reported in western countries, specifically America, Australia and the United Kingdom. This has garnered attention because it bring awareness to the growing need for make-up for younger girls and women, many criticize this claiming it’s connected to western beauty standards which in recent years have become an increasingly controversial topic in many medias revolving around politics and women’s rights.^[52] It’s also a hot topic in medical spaces such as dermatology, due to the increase of young girls using anti-aging cream, despite only being around 11 years old.^[53]

Safety

[edit]

In the United States, “Under the law, cosmetic products and ingredients do not need FDA premarket approval.”^[56] The EU and other regulatory agencies around the world have more stringent regulations.^[57] The FDA does not have to approve or review cosmetics, or what goes in them, before they are sold to consumers. The FDA only regulates some colors that can be used in the cosmetics and hair dyes. The cosmetic companies do not have to report any injuries from the products; they also only have voluntary recalls of products.^[5]

There has been a marketing trend towards the sale of cosmetics lacking controversial ingredients, especially those derived from petroleum, sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS), and parabens.^[58] Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) are a class of about 9,000 synthetic organofluorine compounds that have multiple highly toxic fluorine atoms attached to an alkyl chain. PFAS are used by major cosmetics industry companies in a wide range of cosmetics, including such products as lipstick, eye liner, mascara, foundation, concealer, lip balm, blush, nail polish. A 2021 study tested 231 personal care products and found organic fluorine, a hallmark of PFAS, in more than half of the samples. Substantial levels of fluorine were identified in tested brands of products as follows: 82% of the brands of waterproof mascara, 63% of the brands of foundations, and 62% of liquid lipstick. PFAS compounds are readily absorbed through human skin and through tear ducts, and such products on lips are often unwittingly ingested. Manufacturers often fail to label their products as containing PFAS, which makes it difficult for cosmetics consumers to avoid products containing PFAS.^[59]

Formaldehyde is no longer used in cosmetics but has been replaced by formaldehyde releasers. Formaldehyde is dangerous to human health, especially when inhaled.^[60][61][62] In 2011, the US National Toxicology Program described formaldehyde as “known to be a human carcinogen“.^[63][64][65]

The danger of formaldehyde is a major reason for the development of formaldehyde releasers which release formaldehyde slowly at lower levels.^[66]

Numerous reports have raised concern over the safety of a few surfactants, including 2-butoxyethanol. In some individuals, SLS may cause a number of skin problems, including dermatitis. Additionally, some individuals have had an emergence of vitiligo after using cosmetics containing the ingredient rhododendrol.^{[67][68][69][70][71][72]}

Parabens can cause skin irritation and contact dermatitis in individuals with paraben allergies, a small percentage of the general population.^[73] Animal experiments have shown that parabens have a weak estrogenic activity, acting as xenoestrogens.^[74]

Perfumes are widely used in consumer products. Studies concluded from patch testing show fragrances contain some ingredients which may cause allergic reactions.^[75]

Balsam of Peru was the main recommended marker for perfume allergy before 1977, which is still advised. The presence of Balsam of Peru in a cosmetic will be denoted by the INCI term Myroxylon pereirae.^[76][77] In some instances, Balsam of Peru is listed on the ingredient label of a product by one of its various names, but it may not be required to be listed by its name by mandatory labeling conventions (in fragrances, for example, it may simply be covered by an ingredient listing of “fragrance”).^{[77][78][79][80]}

Some cosmetics companies have made pseudo-scientific claims about their products which are misleading or unsupported by scientific evidence.^[81][82]

Animal testing

[edit]

Main article: Testing cosmetics on animals

As of 2019, an estimated 50–100 million animals are tested each year in locations such as the United States and China.^[83] Such tests have involved general toxicity, eye and skin irritants, phototoxicity (toxicity triggered by ultraviolet light), and mutagenicity.^[84][85] Due to ethical concerns around animal testing, some nations have legislated against animal testing for cosmetics. An updated list can be found on the Humane Societies website.^[86] According to the Humane Society of the United States, there are nearly 50 non-animal tests that have been validated for use, and are potentially more efficacious.^[87] In the United States, mice, rats, rabbits, and cats are the most used animals for testing.^[88] In 2018, California banned the sale of animal-tested cosmetics.^[89]

Cosmetics testing is banned in the Netherlands, India, Norway, Israel, New Zealand, Belgium, and the UK. In 2002, the European Union agreed to phase in a near-total ban on the sale of animal-tested cosmetics throughout the EU from 2009 and to ban all cosmetics-related animal testing.^[90] In December 2009, the European Parliament and Council passed EC Regulation 1223/2009 on cosmetics, a bill to regulate the cosmetic industry in the EU.^[91] EC Regulation 1223/2009 took effect on July 11, 2013.^[91] In March 2013, the EU banned the import and sale of cosmetics containing ingredients tested on animals.^[92] China required animal testing on cosmetic products until 2014, when they waived animal testing requirements for domestically produced products.^[93] In 2019, China approved nine non-animal testing methods, and in 2020 laws making animal testing compulsory were lifted.^[94]

In June 2017, legislation was proposed in Australia to end animal testing in the cosmetics industry.^[95] In March 2019, the Australian Senate passed a bill that banned the use of data from animal testing in the cosmetic industry since July 1, 2020.^[96]

Legislation

[edit]

Europe

[edit]

In the European Union, the manufacture, labelling, and supply of cosmetics and personal care products are regulated by Regulation EC 1223/2009.^[91] It applies to all the countries of the EU as well as Iceland, Norway, and Switzerland. This regulation applies to single-person companies making or importing just one product as well as to large multinationals. Manufacturers and importers of cosmetic products must comply with the applicable regulations in order to sell their products in the EU. In this industry, it is common fall back on a suitably qualified person, such as an independent third party inspection and testing company, to verify the cosmetics’ compliance with the requirements of applicable cosmetic regulations and other relevant legislation, including REACH, GMP, hazardous substances, etc.^[97][98]

In the European Union, the circulation of cosmetic products and their safety have been the subject of legislation since 1976. One of the newest improvements to the regulation concerning the cosmetic industry is the ban on animal testing. Testing cosmetic products on animals has been illegal in the European Union since September 2004, and testing the separate ingredients of such products on animals is also prohibited by law, since March 2009 for some endpoints and full since 2013.^[99]

Cosmetic regulations in Europe are often updated to follow the trends of innovations and new technologies while ensuring product safety. For instance, all annexes of Regulation 1223/2009 were aimed at addressing potential risks to human health. Under the EU cosmetic regulation, manufacturers, retailers, and importers of cosmetics in Europe will be designated as “responsible persons.”.^[91] This new status implies that the responsible person has the legal liability to ensure that the cosmetics and brands they manufacture or sell comply with the current cosmetic regulations and norms. The responsible person is also responsible for the documents contained in the Product Information File (PIF), a list of product information including data such as Cosmetic Product Safety Report, product description, GMP statement, or product function.

United States

[edit]

In 1938, the U.S. passed the Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act authorizing the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) to oversee safety via legislation in the cosmetic industry and its aspects in the United States.^[100][101] The FDA joined with 13 other federal agencies in forming the Interagency Coordinating Committee on the Validation of Alternative Methods (ICCVAM) in 1997, which is an attempt to ban animal testing and find other methods to test cosmetic products.^[102]

The current law on cosmetics in the U.S. does not require cosmetic products and ingredients to have FDA approval before going on the market, except from color additives.^[103] The Cosmetic Safety Enhancement Act was introduced in December 2019 by Representative Frank Pallone.^[104]

Brazil

[edit]

ANVISA (Agência Nacional de Vigilância Sanitária, Brazilian Health Surveillance Agency) is the regulatory body responsible for cosmetic legislation and directives in the country. The rules apply to manufacturers, importers, and retailers of cosmetics in Brazil, and most of them have been harmonized so they can apply to the entire Mercosur.

The current legislation restricts the use of certain substances, such as pyrogallol, formaldehyde, or paraformaldehyde, and bans the use of others, such as lead acetate in cosmetic products. All restricted and forbidden substances and products are listed in the regulation RDC 16/11 and RDC 162, 09/11/01.

More recently, a new cosmetic Technical Regulation (RDC 15/2013) was set up to establish a list of authorized and restricted substances for cosmetic use, used in products such as hair dyes, nail hardeners, or used as product preservatives.

Most Brazilian regulations are optimized, harmonized, or adapted in order to be applicable and extended to the entire Mercosur economic zone.

International

[edit]

The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) published new guidelines on the safe manufacturing of cosmetic products under a Good Manufacturing Practices (GMP) regime. Regulators in several countries and regions have adopted this standard, ISO 22716:2007, effectively replacing existing guidance and standards. ISO 22716 provides a comprehensive approach for a quality management system for those engaged in the manufacturing, packaging, testing, storage, and transportation of cosmetic end products. The standard deals with all aspects of the supply chain, from the early delivery of raw materials and components until the shipment of the final product to the consumer.

The standard is based on other quality management systems, ensuring smooth integration with such systems as ISO 9001 or the British Retail Consortium (BRC) standard for consumer products. Therefore, it combines the benefits of GMP, linking cosmetic product safety with overall business improvement tools that enable organisations to meet global consumer demand for cosmetic product safety certification.^[105]

In July 2012, since microbial contamination is one of the greatest concerns regarding the quality of cosmetic products, the ISO introduced a new standard for evaluating the antimicrobial protection of a cosmetic product by preservation efficacy testing and microbiological risk assessment.

A match is a tool for starting a fire. Typically, matches are made of small wooden sticks or stiff paper. One end is coated with a material that can be ignited by friction generated by striking the match against a suitable surface.^[1] Wooden matches are packaged in matchboxes, and paper matches are partially cut into rows and stapled into matchbooks. The coated end of a match, known as the match “head”, consists of a bead of active ingredients and binder, often colored for easier inspection. There are two main types of matches: safety matches, which can be struck only against a specially prepared surface, and strike-anywhere matches, for which any suitably frictional surface can be used.

Etymology

[edit]

The word match derives from Old French mèche, referring to the wick of a candle.^[2] Historically, the term match referred to lengths of cord (later cambric) impregnated with chemicals, and allowed to burn continuously.^[1] These were used to light fires and fire guns (see matchlock) and cannons (see linstock)^[3] and to detonate explosive devices such as dynamite sticks. Such matches were characterised by their burning speed i.e. quick match and slow match. Depending on its formulation, a slow match burns at a rate of around 30 cm (1 ft) per hour and a quick match at 4 to 60 centimetres (2 to 24 in) per minute.

The modern equivalent of a match (in the sense of a burnable cord) is the simple fuse such as a visco fuse, still used in pyrotechnics to obtain a controlled time delay before ignition.^[4] The original meaning of the word still persists in some pyrotechnics terms, such as black match (a black-powder-impregnated fuse) and Bengal match (a firework akin to sparklers producing a relatively long-burning, colored flame). However, when friction matches became commonplace, the term match came to refer mainly to these.

History

[edit]

Early matches

[edit]

A note in the text Cho Keng Lu, written in 1366, describes a sulfur match, small sticks of pinewood impregnated with sulfur, used in China by “impoverished court ladies” in 577 during the conquest of Northern Qi.^[5] During the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms (907–960), a book called the Records of the Unworldly and the Strange written by Chinese author Tao Gu in about 950 stated:

If there occurs an emergency at night it may take some time to make a light to light a lamp. But an ingenious man devised the system of impregnating little sticks of pinewood with sulfur and storing them ready for use. At the slightest touch of fire, they burst into flame. One gets a little flame like an ear of corn. This marvelous thing was formerly called a “light-bringing slave”, but afterward when it became an article of commerce its name was changed to ‘fire inch-stick’.^[5]

Another text, Wu Lin Chiu Shih, dated from 1270, lists sulfur matches as something that was sold in the markets of Hangzhou, around the time of Marco Polo‘s visit. The matches were known as fa chu or tshui erh.^[5]

Chemical matches

[edit]

Before the use of matches, fires were sometimes lit using a burning glass (a lens) to focus the sun on tinder, a method that could only work on sunny days. Another more common method was igniting tinder with sparks produced by striking flint and steel, or by sharply increasing air pressure in a fire piston. Early work had been done by alchemist Hennig Brand, who discovered the flammable nature of phosphorus in 1669.^[6] Others, including Robert Boyle and his assistant, Ambrose Godfrey, continued these experiments in the 1680s with phosphorus and sulfur, but their efforts did not produce practical and inexpensive methods for generating fires.^[7]

A number of different ways were employed in order to light smoking tobacco: One was the use of a spill – a thin object something like a thin candle, a rolled paper or a straw, which would be lit from a nearby, already existing flame and then used to light the cigar or pipe – most often kept near the fireplace in a spill vase.^[8] Another method saw the use of a striker, a tool that looked like scissors, but with flint on one “blade” and steel on the other. These would then be rubbed together, ultimately producing sparks. If neither of these two was available, one could also use ember tongs to pick up a coal from a fire and light the tobacco directly.

The first modern, self-igniting match was invented in 1805 by Jean Chancel, assistant to Professor Louis Jacques Thénard of Paris. The head of the match consisted of a mixture of potassium chlorate, sulfur, gum arabic and sugar. The match was ignited by dipping its tip in a small asbestos bottle filled with sulfuric acid.^[4] This kind of match was quite expensive, however, and its use was also relatively dangerous, so Chancel’s matches never really became widely adopted or in commonplace use.

This approach to match making was further refined in the following decades, culminating with the ‘Promethean match’ that was patented by Samuel Jones of London in 1828. His match consisted of a small glass capsule containing a chemical composition of sulfuric acid colored with indigo and coated on the exterior with potassium chlorate, all of which was wrapped up in rolls of paper. The immediate ignition of this particular form of a match was achieved by crushing the capsule with a pair of pliers, mixing and releasing the ingredients in order for it to become alight.

In London, similar matches meant for lighting cigars were introduced in 1849 by Heurtner who had a shop called the Lighthouse in the Strand. One version that he sold was called “Euperion” (sometimes “Empyrion”) which was popular for kitchen use and nicknamed as “Hugh Perry”, while another meant for outdoor use was called a “Vesuvian” or “flamer”.^[9] The head was large and contained niter, charcoal and wood dust, and had a phosphorus tip. The handle was large and made of hardwood so as to burn vigorously and last for a while. Some even had glass stems.^[10] Both Vesuvians and Prometheans had a bulb of sulfuric acid at the tip which had to be broken to start the reaction.^[11]

Samuel Jones introduced fuzees for lighting cigars and pipes in 1832. A similar invention was patented in 1839 by John Hucks Stevens in America.^[12]

In 1832, William Newton patented the “wax vesta” in England. It consisted of a wax stem that embedded cotton threads and had a tip of phosphorus. Variants known as “candle matches” were made by Savaresse and Merckel in 1836.^[10] John Hucks Stevens also patented a safety version of the friction match in 1839.^[13]

Friction matches

[edit]

Chemical matches were unable to make the leap into mass production, due to the expense, their cumbersome nature, and the inherent danger of using them. An alternative method was to produce the ignition through friction produced by rubbing two rough surfaces together. An early example was made by François Derosne in 1816. His crude match was called a briquet phosphorique and it used a sulfur-tipped match to scrape inside a tube coated internally with phosphorus. It was both inconvenient and unsafe.^[14][15]

The first successful friction match was invented in 1826 by John Walker, an English chemist and druggist from Stockton-on-Tees, County Durham. He developed a keen interest in trying to find a means of obtaining fire easily. Several chemical mixtures were already known that would ignite by a sudden explosion, but it had not been found possible to transmit the flame to a slow-burning substance like wood. While Walker was preparing a lighting mixture on one occasion, a match that had been dipped in it took fire by an accidental friction upon the hearth. He at once appreciated the practical value of the discovery, and started making friction matches. They consisted of wooden splints or sticks of cardboard coated with sulfur and tipped with a mixture of sulfide of antimony, chlorate of potash, and gum. The treatment with sulfur helped the splints to catch fire, and the odor was improved by the addition of camphor.^[6] The price of a box of 50 matches was one shilling. With each box was supplied a piece of sandpaper, folded double, through which the match had to be drawn to ignite it. Walker did not name the matches “Congreves” in honour of the inventor and rocket pioneer Sir William Congreve, as it is sometimes stated. The congreves were the invention of Charles Sauria, a French chemistry student at the time.^[16][17] Walker did not divulge the exact composition of his matches.^[18] Between 1827 and 1829, Walker made about 168 sales of his matches. It was, however, dangerous and flaming balls sometimes fell to the floor, burning carpets and dresses, leading to their ban in France and Germany.^[11] Walker either refused or neglected to patent his invention.^[6][19]

In 1829, Scots inventor Sir Isaac Holden invented an improved version of Walker’s match and demonstrated it to his class at Castle Academy in Reading, Berkshire. Holden did not patent his invention and claimed that one of his pupils wrote to his father Samuel Jones, a chemist in London who commercialised his process.^[20] A version of Holden’s match was patented by Samuel Jones, and these were sold as lucifer matches. These early matches had a number of problems – an initial violent reaction, an unsteady flame, and unpleasant odor and fumes. Lucifers could ignite explosively, sometimes throwing sparks a considerable distance. Lucifers were manufactured in the United States by Ezekial Byam.^[6]

The term “lucifer” persisted as slang for a match into the 20th century. For example, the song “Pack Up Your Troubles” includes the line “while you’ve a lucifer to light your fag”. Matches are still called “lucifers” in Dutch.

Lucifers were quickly replaced after 1830 by matches made according to the process devised by Frenchman Charles Sauria, who substituted white phosphorus for the antimony sulfide.^[21] These new phosphorus matches had to be kept in airtight metal boxes but became popular and went by the name of loco foco (“crazy fire”) in the United States, from which was derived the name of a political party.^[22] The earliest American patent for the phosphorus friction match was granted in 1836 to Alonzo Dwight Phillips of Springfield, Massachusetts.^[23]

From 1830 to 1890, the composition of these matches remained largely unchanged, although some improvements were made. In 1843 William Ashgard replaced the sulfur with beeswax, reducing the pungency of the fumes. This was replaced by paraffin in 1862 by Charles W. Smith, resulting in what were called “parlor matches”. From 1870 the end of the splint was fireproofed by impregnation with fire-retardant chemicals such as alum, sodium silicate, and other salts resulting in what was commonly called a “drunkard’s match” that prevented the accidental burning of the user’s fingers. Other advances were made for the mass manufacture of matches. Early matches were made from blocks of woods with cuts separating the splints but leaving their bases attached. Later versions were made in the form of thin combs. The splints would be broken away from the comb when required.^[10]

A noiseless match was invented in 1836 by the Hungarian János Irinyi, who was a student of chemistry.^[24] An unsuccessful experiment by his professor, Meissner, gave Irinyi the idea to replace potassium chlorate with lead dioxide^[25] in the head of the phosphorus match.^[24] He liquefied phosphorus in warm water and shook it in a glass vial, until the two liquids emulsified. He mixed the phosphorus with lead dioxide and gum arabic, poured the paste-like mass into a jar, and dipped the pine sticks into the mixture and let them dry. When he tried them that evening, all of them lit evenly. He sold the invention and production rights for these noiseless matches to István Rómer, a Hungarian pharmacist living in Vienna, for 60 florins (about 22.5 oz t of silver). As a match manufacturer, Rómer became rich, and Irinyi went on to publish articles and a textbook on chemistry, and founded several match factories.^[24]

Replacement of white phosphorus

[edit]

Those involved in the manufacture of the new phosphorus matches were afflicted with phossy jaw and other bone disorders,^[26] and there was enough white phosphorus in one pack to kill a person. Deaths and suicides from eating the heads of matches became frequent. The earliest report of phosphorus necrosis was made in 1845 by Lorinser in Vienna, and a New York surgeon published a pamphlet with notes on nine cases.^[27][28]

The conditions of working-class women at the Bryant & May factories led to the London matchgirls strike of 1888. The strike was focused on the severe health complications of working with white phosphorus, such as phossy jaw.^[29] Social activist Annie Besant published an article in her halfpenny weekly paper The Link on 23 June 1888.^[30] A strike fund was set up and some newspapers collected donations from readers. The women and girls also solicited contributions. Members of the Fabian Society, including George Bernard Shaw, Sidney Webb, and Graham Wallas, were involved in the distribution of the cash collected.^[31] The strike and negative publicity led to changes being made to limit the health effects of the inhalation of white phosphorus.

Attempts were made to reduce the ill-effects on workers through the introduction of inspections and regulations. Anton Schrötter von Kristelli discovered in 1850 that heating white phosphorus at 250 °C in an inert atmosphere produced a red allotropic form, which did not fume in contact with air. It was suggested that this would make a suitable substitute in match manufacture although it was slightly more expensive.^[32] Two French chemists, Henri Savene and Emile David Cahen, proved in 1898 that the addition of phosphorus sesquisulfide meant that the substance was not poisonous, that it could be used in a “strike-anywhere” match, and that the match heads were not explosive.^[33]

British company Albright and Wilson was the first company to produce phosphorus sesquisulfide matches commercially. The company developed a safe means of making commercial quantities of phosphorus sesquisulfide in 1899 and started selling it to match manufacturers.^[34][35] However, white phosphorus continued to be used, and its serious effects led many countries to ban its use. Finland prohibited the use of white phosphorus in 1872, followed by Denmark in 1874, France in 1897, Switzerland in 1898, and the Netherlands in 1901.^[27] An agreement, the Berne Convention, was reached at Bern, Switzerland, in September 1906, which banned the use of white phosphorus in matches.^[36] This required each country to pass laws prohibiting the use of white phosphorus in matches. The United Kingdom passed a law in 1908 prohibiting its use in matches after 31 December 1910. The United States did not pass a law, but instead placed a “punitive tax” in 1913 on white phosphorus–based matches, one so high as to render their manufacture financially impractical, and Canada banned them in 1914.^[37] India and Japan banned them in 1919; China followed, banning them in 1925.

In 1901 Albright and Wilson started making phosphorus sesquisulfide at their Niagara Falls, New York plant for the US market, but American manufacturers continued to use white phosphorus matches.^[33] The Niagara Falls plant made them until 1910, when the United States Congress forbade the shipment of white phosphorus matches in interstate commerce.^[34]

Safety matches

[edit]

The dangers of white phosphorus in the manufacture of matches led to the development of the “hygienic” or “safety match”. The major innovation in its development was the use of red phosphorus, not on the head of the match but instead on a specially designed striking surface.

Arthur Albright developed the industrial process for large-scale manufacture of red phosphorus after Schrötter’s discoveries became known. By 1851, his company was producing the substance by heating white phosphorus in a sealed pot at a specific temperature. He exhibited his red phosphorus in 1851, at The Great Exhibition held at The Crystal Palace in London.

The idea of creating a specially designed striking surface was developed in 1844 by the Swede Gustaf Erik Pasch. Pasch patented the use of red phosphorus in the striking surface. He found that this could ignite heads that did not need to contain white phosphorus. Johan Edvard Lundström and his younger brother Carl Frans Lundström (1823–1917) started a large-scale match industry in Jönköping, Sweden around 1847, but the improved safety match was not introduced until around 1850–55. The Lundström brothers had obtained a sample of red phosphorus matches from Albright at The Great Exhibition,^[38] but had misplaced it and therefore they did not try the matches until just before the Paris Exhibition of 1855 when they found that the matches were still usable.^[38] In 1858 their company produced around 12 million matchboxes.^[35]

The safety of true “safety matches” is derived from the separation of the reactive ingredients between a match head on the end of a paraffin-impregnated splint and the special striking surface (in addition to the safety aspect of replacing the white phosphorus with red phosphorus). The idea for separating the chemicals had been introduced in 1859 in the form of two-headed matches known in France as Allumettes Androgynes. These were sticks with one end made of potassium chlorate and the other of red phosphorus. They had to be broken and the heads rubbed together.^[35] There was, however, a risk of the heads rubbing each other accidentally in their box. Such dangers were removed when the striking surface was moved to the outside of the box. The development of a specialized matchbook with both matches and a striking surface occurred in the 1890s with the American Joshua Pusey, who sold his patent to the Diamond Match Company.

The striking surface on modern matchboxes is typically composed of 25% powdered glass or other abrasive material, 50% red phosphorus, 5% neutralizer, 4% carbon black, and 16% binder; and the match head is typically composed of 45–55% potassium chlorate, with a little sulfur and starch, a neutralizer (ZnO or CaCO
₃), 20–40% of siliceous filler, diatomite, and glue.^[39] Safety matches ignite due to the extreme reactivity of phosphorus with the potassium chlorate in the match head. When the match is struck, the phosphorus and chlorate mix in a small amount and form something akin to the explosive Armstrong’s mixture, which ignites due to the friction. The red color of the matchhead is due to addition of red dyes, not the red phosphorus content.^[40]

The Swedes long held a virtual worldwide monopoly on safety matches, with the industry mainly situated in Jönköping, by 1903 called Jönköpings & Vulcans Tändsticksfabriks AB today Swedish Match.^[41] In France, they sold the rights to their safety match patent to Coigent Père & Fils of Lyon, but Coigent contested the payment in the French courts, on the basis that the invention was known in Vienna before the Lundström brothers patented it.^[41] The British match manufacturer Bryant and May visited Jönköping in 1858 to try to obtain a supply of safety matches, but was unsuccessful. In 1862 it established its own factory and bought the rights for the British safety match patent from the Lundström brothers.^[41]

Varieties of matches today

[edit]

Friction matches made with white phosphorus as well as those made from phosphorus sesquisulfide can be struck on any suitable surface. They have remained particularly popular in the United States, even when safety matches had become common in Europe, and are still widely used today around the world, including in many developing countries,^[35] for such uses as camping, outdoor activities, emergency/survival situations, and stocking homemade survival kits.^[42][43] However, strike-anywhere matches are banned on all kinds of aircraft under the “dangerous goods” classification U.N. 1331, Matches, strike-anywhere.^[44]

Safety matches are classified as dangerous goods, “U.N. 1944, Matches, safety”. They are not universally forbidden on aircraft; however, they must be declared as dangerous goods and individual airlines or countries may impose tighter restrictions.^[44]

Storm matches, also known as lifeboat matches or flare matches, are often included in survival kits. They have a strikeable tip similar to a normal match, but the combustible compound – including an oxidiser – continues down the length of the stick, coating half or more of the entire matchstick. The match also has a waterproof coating (which often makes the match more difficult to light), and often storm matches are longer than standard matches. As a result of the combustible coating, storm matches burn strongly even in strong winds, and can even spontaneously re-ignite after being briefly immersed in water.

• Ignition of a match
• Matches with an intellectual pastime printed
• Household safety matches
• Special storm matches

Hobbyist collection

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The hobby of collecting match-related items, such as matchcovers and matchbox labels, is known as phillumeny.